Philosophy Dictionary of ArgumentsHome
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| Rules, philosophy: rules are restrictions of a domain of possibilities for subjects, communities or functionaries, or generally for acting individuals or groups. Rules may be implicit or explicit, and may be implemented by ordinance or by jointly developing equally authorized participants, e.g. in a discourse. In another sense, rules can be understood as actual regularities that can be discovered by observation. These rules can be discovered not only in action, but also in the nature of objects such as linguistic structures. See also norms, values, rule following, private language, language rules, discourse, ethics, morality, cognitivism, intuitionism, society, practice._____________Annotation: The above characterizations of concepts are neither definitions nor exhausting presentations of problems related to them. Instead, they are intended to give a short introduction to the contributions below. – Lexicon of Arguments. | |||
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John Lyons on Rules - Dictionary of Arguments
I 157 Rules/Grammar/Transformational Grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: Chomsky seems to reject this. In his opinion: ChomskyVsGrammatical rules: Thesis: The grammatical structure of the language is determined ((s) not according to the above rules) and is "intuitively" (unconsciously) mastered by the native speaker. (ChomskyVsRules due to the consequence of "uncertainty of grammar"/ChomskyVsUncertainty of grammar). Lyons: the differences in opinion here are exaggerated. Not all grammar is uncertain. I 219 Phrase structure grammar/Constituent grammar/Rules/Chomsky/Lyons: Each rule brackets the constituents that form the construction defined by it and also describes them. >Constituent grammar, >Phrase structure grammar. Layers: (of the structure) are determined by the order in which the rules are applied. Def Initial symbol/Terminology/Grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: Example ∑ for sentence ((s) stands farthest left or above a branch). Grammar: produces a chain of symbols by applying the rules. >Lexicon. Def End Symbol/Grammar/Lyons: specifies the class of elements of the lexicon e.g. adjective. Def End chain/terminal string/grammar/terminology/Lyons: consists of end symbols. I 220 Sentence/Grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: occurs when we replace the end symbols from the end chain with an element of the lexical class they describe. Its constituent structure is fully determined by the replacement rules that create the end chain. >Terminology/Lyons. I 220 Replacement rules/Grammar/Alternative rules/Extension/Chomsky/Lyons: to distinguish transitive and intransitive verbs, we introduce: (1) ∑ > NP + Vp (2a) VP > V intr + Adv 2b) VP > V tr + Adv (3) Np > A + N. I 221 If we introduce the option between (2a) and (2b), we must change the word classification in the lexicon: V intr = [{ran, etc.} V ir = {love, kill, etc.}. >Word classes. Grammar/problem: it is still unsatisfactory: 1. It still produces illegal sentences such as Poor John kill old women ((s) no special form for 3rd person singular). Solution: we must consider the congruence between the "subject" and the verb. >Congruence/Lyons. 3 (we leave that out here). 2. as it stands now, we can only produce sentences with five words like "Old men love young women" or sentences with four words like "Poor John ran away". The following sentences are not possible: e.g. John ran away, e.g. Men love young women, e.g. Old men love women, e.g. Old men love young women passionately. Optional Rule/Extension/Grammar/Replacement Rules/Lyons: For example: we extend rules (3) by making two rules out of one: (3) NP > N (4) N > A + N We say that (3) is obligatory, but (4) optional. New: then we also get: e.g. John ran away, e.g. Men love young women, e.g. Old men love women etc. All these sentences are subtypes of the sentence type. ∑(NP + VP). This means that their structures are identical at a certain level of analysis. Family Tree/Structure Tree: Example (I) John ran away (II) Poor John ran away (III) Men love women (IV) Old men love women (V) Men love young women, (VI) Old men love young women I 223 Rules/Replacement Rules/Order/Grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: the priority of a certain order of rules over another can significantly change the result of the grammar. optional: e.g. (1) ∑ > NP + VP (2a) VP > V intr + Adv 2b) VP > V tr + Adv (3) Np > A + N. (4) N > T + N (5) N > Adj + N Rules (4) and (5) are optional. New: therefore the grammar now generates men, the men, good men, and the good men. Order: if (5) should come before (4), there would be e.g. good the men. Order: also that of (3) is essential: if it were in front (2b), it would have to be repeated afterwards to guarantee the extension for the complex resulting from VP > V tr + NP. The sequence can therefore prevent inadmissible sentences and reduce the scope of the rule corpus. Order: Assumed, (6) N > N + and + N If (6) operates before (5), we get for example (old men) and women and men and (old women) If (6) operates after (5), we get for example old (men and women). I 224 Semantically, it is the same, despite the different brackets. Def Recursive Rules/recursive/Recursion/Lyons: allow infinitely repeated application (only in infinite cases they are called recursive). Example (6b) N > N + and + N + and + N (6c) N > N + and + N + and + N + and + N (6d) … E.g. This is how you can tell stories: e.g. He came in and he sat down and he said that ...and he... Recursion/Grammar/Lyons: a "realistic" model of grammar I 225 will be designed in such a way that there are more examples of recursive structures with two constituents than with three, more with three than with four, etc. ((s) the simplest forms should be the most likely ones). >Constituent Structure Grammar. Probability/Grammar/Correctness/Lyons: the probability of an occurrence must not be confused with its correctness. Coordination/Recursive rules/Grammar/Lyons: Problem: Coordination using a recursive rule: ambiguity by different possible brackets e.g. Tom and Dick and Harry, (Tom and Dick) and Harry, Tom and (Dick and Harry). Dilemma: a) Intuition: recursive rules do not indicate what the intuitively perceived structural description is. b) and yet recursive rules are necessary. I 227 Formation rules/phrase structure rules/constituent structure grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: Spelling/Terminology: PSG - phrase structure grammar. PS rules - Phrase structure rules. a) Formation rules = phrase structure rules b) Transformation rules: specify how the end chains are transformed into real sentences. I 249 Context Dependence/Rules/Economy/Lyons: the rule growth to cover all other congruence ratios would be small. >Context/Lyons. On the other hand, it would be significant in context-independent grammar. Here, context-dependent grammars are more economical. Correctness/Lyons: both types of grammars formalize the congruence ratios correctly. >Correctness/Lyons._____________Explanation of symbols: Roman numerals indicate the source, arabic numerals indicate the page number. The corresponding books are indicated on the right hand side. ((s)…): Comment by the sender of the contribution. Translations: Dictionary of Arguments The note [Concept/Author], [Author1]Vs[Author2] or [Author]Vs[term] resp. "problem:"/"solution:", "old:"/"new:" and "thesis:" is an addition from the Dictionary of Arguments. If a German edition is specified, the page numbers refer to this edition. |
Ly II John Lyons Semantics Cambridge, MA 1977 Lyons I John Lyons Introduction to Theoretical Lingustics, Cambridge/MA 1968 German Edition: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik München 1995 |
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Ed. Martin Schulz, access date 2024-04-20