Dictionary of Arguments

Philosophical and Scientific Issues in Dispute

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The author or concept searched is found in the following 8 entries.

Disputed term/author/ism	Author	Entry	Reference
Cosmological Constant	Kanitscheider	I 151 Einstein universe/Kanitscheider: The Einstein universe starts from a strong, not directly testable initial assumption, with the conviction that locally testable statements can be derived from it. Spherical geometry according to the basic idea of general relativity (GR). Equal distribution of matter, assumption of an "ideal fluid". Especially the low relative velocity of the stars among each other was the reason to approach a global density T₀₀ = ρ despite the tremendously complex matter distribution. Metric: simple static metric of the three-sphere with the constant radius R: I 152 (1) ds² = dt² + R²[dr² + sin²r(dϑ² + sin² ϑdφ²)] If we now look at the sections ϑ,φ = const, so you get a cylinder which the coordinate r goes around from 0 to π and the time t extends along the mantle without restriction into the future and past. Problem: This does not satisfy the field equations of gravity. Einstein had to introduce the cosmological constant λ. The field equation had to be extended with the term λ x gμν. The extension is compatible with the conservation law. In this model, space is spherical, finite and unbounded, while time is open and unaffected by curvature! World without center and without edge, in which spatially everything is finite (volume, number of galaxies, the longest paths). Thus, the otherwise complicated field equations were reduced to simple algebraic relations between the quantities λ, ρ and R. R/notation: Radius of curvature of the world. Cosmological constant λ: associated with the radius of curvature R of the world: λ = 1/R². Also with the matter density ρ: λ = 4πGρ/c². This leads to a value of λ = 10^-57 cm ^-2. For the cylinder world with a radius R of 3 x 10¹⁰ light years. Cosmological constant/Kanitscheider: physically it is bound to the stability of a static world with constant density. Then one can ask, what prevents the large masses to agglomerate. Cosmologically, λ > 0 now provides a weak repulsive force! However, Eddington proved that this is not consistent with respect to weak fluctuations. I 154 Cosmological constant/field equations/Kanitscheider: Left side: geometric, here the cosmological constant can mean λ curvature. Right side: " material side": here λ can be negative density. The cosmological constant often gets the meaning of the energy density of the vacuum in the context of quantum field theory. It represents in a certain way a restoration of the universal time destroyed by the SR. I 158 Cosmological constant/Kanitscheider: should ensure the complete dependence of the inertial field g_μν on all matter and prevent the field equations from admitting solutions for empty space. It was clear, of course, that the Minkowski spacetime (1) ds² = dt² + R²[dr² + sin²r(dϑ² + sin² ϑdφ²)] as the simplest empty world of Relativity Theory is in any case a strict solution. >Minkowski space.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Field Equations			Link to abbreviations/authors
Field Equations	Kanitscheider	I 178 Gravity/Relativity/Kanitscheider: A world filled with gravitational radiation cannot be completely flat. However, the wave is damped by becoming energetically poorer. So a black hole can arise by the self-interaction at the end. One has found strict solutions of the field equations for closed universes whose sole content consists of gravitational waves. Here, the curvature of spacetime itself must form the principium individuationis. Field equation: (4) R_μν - 1/2 g_μνR + λ g_μν = 8πGT_μν left side: phenomena, curvature. right side: matter, cause, pressure, density, tension, charge. Field equation: If formulated as tensor equation, the curvature (and therefore the gravity) disappears in the outer space of the sun. Therefore Einstein uses the Ricci tensor and the curvature scalar R, both contain only the contribution of the local matter. The coupling constant G is not determined by the field equations themselves, but must be determined externally empirically. It does not belong to the nomological but to the contingent elements of the theory. Notation: R_μν: Riccitensor R: Curvature scalar T_μν: Matter tensor >Space curvature/Kanitscheider, >Universe/Kanitscheider, >Relativity theory. I 182 Field equations/channel separators: in their above form they always contain all kinds of spacetimes. Here it is necessary to specify the boundary conditions which separate the local solutions from the global solutions useful in cosmology. Here, at great distance, the spacetime structure merges into the asymptotically flat Minkowski space. This is unsatisfactory, because it allows an excellent observer point of view, in contradiction with the accepted Copernican world view. ((s) asymptotically flat/(s): means that in the outskirts of the universe it is different from us. No life is possible there. Therefore designated observer point of view). >Minkowski space.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Geometry	Kanitscheider	I 187f Geometry/cosmology/FRW/Kanitscheider: a peculiarity of the spatial part of the line element is in the kind of the time-dependent geometry which it includes: the factor R(t),provides for the fact that all spatial structures of cosmic extent (thus larger than galaxies) experience a rotation or shrinking. (Whereby a triangle remains similar). The homogeneity condition excludes other geometrical changes (e.g. shearing of a triangle, whereby the area, but not the form would remain). ((s) Thus the density would increase or decrease). Furthermore, the isotropy forbids a rotation, whereby a direction would be distinguished. Kanitscheider: however, all this goes back to the underlying boundary conditions is not logically a priori or physically necessary! Also world models with relaxed boundary conditions and thus shearing and rotation are to be brought in agreement with Einstein's field equations. >Field equations. I 188/189 Curvature/channel separator: free parameter: k, the so-called curvature index. Notation: k: curvature index. At k = 0 the physical space is flat, Euclidean. Parabolic. At k = +1 it is spherical. Compact, closed world. Trisphere, a most distant point. Unique and invertible mapping, connected to the trisphere S³. Again, an elliptic relation can be obtained by identifying the antipodal points, although the volume of the spaces may well be different. For k = -1 hyperbolic, topologically ambiguous: Euclidean dimensional relations apply locally on both the cylinder and the cone, i.e. finite and infinite models are possible. Also here (and at k = 0) one can achieve by an identification of antipodal points that the three-space becomes compact, only here thereby the symmetry properties of the space are roughly changed, they are then no longer isotropic. But this actually does not answer the question whether the space is infinite, but the line element always only determines the local metric geometry! However, it can be said independently that the world is undoubtedly infinite, i.e. it has no spatial boundary. >Universe/Kanitscheider, >Space curvature/Kanitscheider, >Relativity theory.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Minkowski Space	Kanitscheider	I 472 Minkowski space/Kanitscheider: the flat space-time of special relativity (SR). Four-dimensional Euclidean space spanned with the imaginary time coordinate ict = x4.(Notation: t time, c speed of light). Here the laws of the SR can be represented particularly simply. A point (event) is a world point, a place vector a world vector, the path of a particle a world line. Lorentz transformation means here a simple rotation of the coordinate system. If one chooses as time coordinate the real quantity x₀ = ct = ix4 , then the space has a pseudo-Euclidean metric. The square of the length of any world vector is then given by R² (squares of the coordinates). For R² > 0 the world vector is space-like, for R2< 0 time-like. Light cone: the null cone or causality cone defined by R² = 0: The area within the light cone (R² < 0) includes all events which are or can be causally related to events in the vertex. Def Haussdorff space/Kanitscheider: a topological space is Haussdorffian if the Def separation axiom is satisfied: if x and y are two distinct points from T, then there are environments U(x) and U(y) such that there is no intersection of the two environments. >Relativity theory, >Space curvature, >Weyl principle. I 183 Spacetime/Kanitscheider: The Minkowski space (asymptotically flat in great distance is isotropic only from our location! I.e. from other points of view, the universe looks different. This is unsatisfactory. Our requirement is that the whole universe is isotropic (looking the same from all sides) and homogeneous (same approximate density everywhere). I.e. that if one puts a cut S(t) = const through the space-time, then one receives three-dimensional spaces (not Minkowski), which possess everywhere constant curvature and material condition. Friedman succeeded in 1922 to present a solution model. >Field equations/Kanitscheider.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Time	Vollmer	II 51 Time/time direction/time reversal/Vollmer: the designation of a time direction is empirical and is made always only secondarily by additional assumptions. - E.g. initial conditions in the mechanics and thermodynamics - rediance conditions in electrodynamics. >Initial conditions. II 234 Time/logical form/Vollmer: temporal relationships can be expressed by real functions t(e1, e2) that are defined on event pairs. >Events. Asymmetry: is then a formal property of this function to change the sign at reversal. - This has nothing to do with reversibility of physical processes, also not with designation of one direction. >Asymmetry, >Symmetries. Time Reversal: Time Reversal is only a formal operation of changing the sign. >Equations, >Time reversal, cf. >Time travel, >Past, >Present, >Future. II 325 Invariant: a formula is invariant that does not change under time reversal. >Invariants. Time reversal invariance: So is a property of formulas or functions. - E.g. Newtonian equation of motion. >Formulas. On the other hand: The question of whether natural processes are reversible, relates to the real world. Problem: a T-invariant equation can describe both reversible and non-reversible processes. - If, then it does not yet contain complete information. II 236 Definition Time Arrow/time direction/Vollmer: so we will call the fact that there are chains of events, whose part events never happen in reverse order. Time direction is not a characteristic of the time, but of processes. >Processes. That there are different classes of irreversible processes, there are different arrows of time: the expansion of the universe, the electrodynamic of spherical waves - that a process is irreversible, one cannot see that in looking at it. - It can also never be proven. - Causality/cause/effect/VollmerVsReichenbach: cannot define the arrow of time. - Reversed: these are not to defined without time arrow. >Causality, >Cause, >Effect. II 238 Irreversibility/Physics/time reversal/time arrow/Vollmer: We expect that the fundamental equations, equations of motion, laws of force, field equations are T-invariant, that is, that they change with time reversal. II 252 Entropy/universe/Boltzmann/Vollmer: for him, the universe as a whole is in a thermodynamic equilibrium, so in the entropy maximum. II 253 VollmerVsBoltzmann: the observations state the contrary. If we advance into more distant parts of the universe, we can always find low entropy. >Entropy. If there were a region of space with decreasing entropy (increasing order), there would also be irreversible processes, but some time arrows would be reversed.	Vollmer I G. Vollmer Was können wir wissen? Bd. I Die Natur der Erkenntnis. Beiträge zur Evolutionären Erkenntnistheorie Stuttgart 1988 Vollmer II G. Vollmer Was können wir wissen? Bd II Die Erkenntnis der Natur. Beiträge zur modernen Naturphilosophie Stuttgart 1988
Time Travel	Kanitscheider	I 293 "Causality violation"/Kanitscheider: Expression that a thought experiment requires a time reversal, a journey faster than light, or a reversal of effect and cause. Also known as the "grandfather paradox" in the context of time travel. >Causality. Time/Gödel/Kanitscheider: Gödel found a solution to the field equation that enables time travel. Gödel doubts an objective passage of time and interprets the temporality of the world as an anthropomorphic, subjective element unimportant for physical reality. >Field equations. Time/Kanitscheider: The relativity of simultaneity has prompted many authors to consider using a different reference system to destroy the temporal coincidence of two events, as a result of which time has lost its status of reflecting the objective flow of things. But that's only true if you equate "relative" with "subjective". In the case of a neutral, abstract formulation of the theory, however, this is not required at all. It also makes no sense to connect the conceptual and the concrete level in this way. A coordinate system can represent a reference system, a physical object, but does not have to. >Coordinate system. I 296 Time travel/Special Theory of Relativity/SR/Kanitscheider: The Special Theory of Relativity does not hold any possibility for time travel, although it includes the light cone, i.e. a traveler would not only have a single fiber within this cone, but a scope with which he could accelerate his time drift, but with it it can only affect the rate of elapsed time. For example, he can keep the quantum of elapsed time small by placing his movement close to the zero cone. He cannot change the chronology. >Events. Time travel/Kanitscheider: Vs time machine/VsWells: H.G.Wells makes the mistake of letting the traveler ascend and descend the earth's world line on the same earthly point in space. Precisely this leads to the conceptual impossibility of moving forwards and backwards in time. Time travel/General Relativity/Kanitscheider: that changes when matter comes into play. I 298 Violation of causality/Kanitscheider: Assuming a coordinate system with rotational symmetry around the origin, then the local light cone at r = 0 encloses the t coordinate in its future direction upwards as usual. However, if you move away from the origin, the local light cones begin to incline towards the plane of rotation. >Symmetries. When the cone of light touches the plane of rotation with its mantle, the earlier angular coordinate becomes light-like, and at an even greater distance time-like. This role reversal of the coordinates, so that the opening of the light cone is first in a space-like, but now in a time-like coordinate, is the hallmark of the violation of causality. Eg if p is the temporal predecessor of q on an open curve with infinite affine length, then there is also a time-like curve on which q is the predecessor of p. The consequences are absurd: e.g. a body with a circular time-like world line encounters a given galaxy only once when the event is observed from the galaxy, but for the inhabitant of the body the encounter recurs periodically. E.g. In a spiraling world line, everyone thinks the other is younger at every encounter, although both agree that time has passed. Time travel/Kanitscheider: of course the grandfather paradox remains, but the Gödel world cannot be ruled out. Our current universe almost certainly doesn't allow time travel due to the lack of rotation. One would have to rely on a naked singularity or manipulation of local matter.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Universe	Kanitscheider	I 182 Electromagnetism/gravity/cosmology/Kanitscheider: It is assumed that the galaxies and the universe as a whole are electrically neutral. There is no negative particle of gravity. Therefore she is always attractive. This does not necessarily follow from the field equations themselves, but is forced by the addition of energy conditions for the known matter fields. Gravitation/Cosmology/Kanitscheider: In contrast to electromagnetism, gravitation cannot be shielded. Therefore, it is the only interaction used to explain the universe. >Gravitation/Kanitscheider, >Theory of Relativity, >Cosmological principle/Kanitscheider.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996

The author or concept searched is found in the following 2 controversies.

Disputed term/author/ism	Author Vs Author	Entry	Reference
Newton, I.	Einstein Vs Newton, I.	Feynman I 217 EinsteinVsNewton: mass increases with increasing speed. I 228 Lorentz Transformation/EinsteinVsNewton: modified mass: momentum: still mv. Still valid: action equals reaction, conservation of momentum. But the size that remains is no longer the old mv with constant mass. Kanitscheider I 167 Field Equations/Einstein/Kanitscheider: describe the mutual influence of matter and spacetime. EinsteinVsNewton: space-time and matter are causal partners - space-time itself has physical properties.	Feynman I Richard Feynman The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. I, Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat, California Institute of Technology 1963 German Edition: Vorlesungen über Physik I München 2001 Feynman II R. Feynman The Character of Physical Law, Cambridge, MA/London 1967 German Edition: Vom Wesen physikalischer Gesetze München 1993 Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996
Steady State Theory	Verschiedene Vs Steady State Theory	Kanitscheider I 359 Steady State Theory/SST/Bondi/Kanitscheider: Thesis: Priority of cosmology over local physics. Bondi's Thesis: the unclear complexity of the phenomenon world is only one property of the mesocosm. I 360 VsSST: incompatible with our empiricism: a static universe has long been in thermodynamic equilibrium. All development would already have reached its final state. It would no longer be possible to determine the direction of the time flow. Of the two types of motion allowed by Perfect Cosmological Principle, expansion and contraction, contraction is already eliminated because the necessary excess of radiation in relation to matter is lacking. For expansion, however, the steady state theory now needs the assumption of constant additional generation of matter. But this overrides the important principle of hydrodynamic continuity! I 361 However, at the current values for density and recession constant (distance movement of galaxies from each other), the origin of matter would only be one H atom per litre every 5x10 exp 11 years. Conservation of Matter/BondiVsVs: he even believes he can save the conservation of matter. He says that in a certain, observable area, seen globally, the observable amount of matter does not change, i.e. that in a constant eigenvolume matter is preserved, in contrast to the relativistic models, where the conservation applies rather to the coordinate volume. The Def Eigenvolume is the part of space that is fixed by a fixed distance from the observer, while the Def coordinate volume is given by the constancy of the com mobile coordinates. I 362 Steady State Theory/SST: here there is always the same amount of matter within the range of a certain telescope, while here the relativity theory assumes a dilution, i.e. the matter remains the same in the expanding volume. At the SST, the new formation ensures that the total amount of all observable matter remains the same. Observer/SST: when investigating motion, each observer can perceive a preferred direction of motion apart from local deviations, whereby he determines the constant relationship between velocity and distance completely symmetrically within a small range. In relativistic cosmology this was the starting point for the Weyl principle. Def Weyl-Principle: Postulate: the particles of a substrate (galaxies) lie in spacetime on a bundle of geodesists that start from a point in the past (Big Bang) and never intersect except at this point. From this follows the existence of a family of hyperplanes (t = const) orthogonal to these geodesists and the only parameters possessing cosmic time. I 362/363 Bondi/SST/Steady State Theory: doubts now that in view of the scattering of the fog movement these hyperplanes exist secured. Because of its stationary character, SST does not need Weyl's postulate and can define homogeneity without cosmic time. Thermodynamic imbalance/universe/SST: Explanation: a photon emanating from a star has a very long free path and reaches areas with strongly changed local motion. This shifts its frequency to red. However, the thermal energy it gives off on its way to the surrounding matter is only a very small part of that lost by its original star. Thus the universe represents a kind of cosmic sink for radiant energy. According to the Perfect Cosmological Principle, sources must exist that make up for the loss. Perfect Cosmological Principle: is logically compatible with three types of universes: 1. Static, without new creation of matter, 2. Expanding, with new development I 364 3. Collapsing, with destruction of matter SST/Bondi: believes in the strict relationship between distance and speed R'(t)/R(t) = 1/T. This results in R as an exponential function and the metric of the SST takes the form of the line element of de Sitter. (see above). Already the self-similarity of the scale function shows the basic metric properties of this model. It is not possible for us to recognize at which point of the curve R = et/T we are. The universe has no beginning and no end. I 365 Age/Universe/SST: Advantage over relativistic theories where the inverse Hubble constant led to a too low age. Metric/SST: while the de Sitter metric is unusable in Einstein's representation because it can only be reconciled with vanishing matter, this problem does not occur in the SST: here there is no necessary connection between physical geometry and matter content of space! According to the de Sitter structure, the world has an event horizon, i.e. every clock on a distant galaxy follows in such a way that there is a point in its history after which the emitted light can no longer reach a distant observer. If, however, a particle has formed within the range that can in principle be reached with ideal instruments, then it can never disappear from its field of view. I 367 Perfect Cosmological Principle: Problem: lies in the statistical character, which applies strictly on a cosmic scale, but not locally, whereby the local environment only ends beyond the galaxy clusters. Steady State Theory/SST/Hoyle: starts from the classical field equations, but changes them so strongly that all Bondi and Gold results that they have drawn from the Perfect Cosmological Principle remain valid. Hoyle/SST: Thesis: In nature a class of preferred directions can obviously be observed in the large-scale movements, which makes a covariant treatment impossible! Only a preferred class of observers sees the universe in the same way. I 368 Weyl Principle/Postulate: defines a unique relationship of each event P to the origin O. It cannot be a strict law of nature, since it is constantly violated in the local area by its own movements! Hoyle: (formula, tensors, + I 368). Through multiple differentiation symmetric tensor field, energy conservation does not apply, matter must constantly arise anew. Matter emergence/SST/Hoyle: there is an interpretation of matter origin caused by negative pressure in the universe. It should then be interpreted as work that this pressure does during expansion! VsSST: the synchronisation of expansion and origin is just as incomprehensible from theory as the fact that it is always matter and not antimatter that arises. (...+ formula, other choice of the coupling constant I 371/72). I 373 Negative Energy: it has been shown to cause the formation rate of particle pairs to "run away": infinite number in finite region. VsSST/Empiricism: many data spoke against the SST: excess of distant and thus early radio sources, redshift of the quasars indicating a slowdown of expansion, background radiation.	Kanitsch I B. Kanitscheider Kosmologie Stuttgart 1991 Kanitsch II B. Kanitscheider Im Innern der Natur Darmstadt 1996