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The author or concept searched is found in the following 2 entries.
| Disputed term/author/ism | Author |
Entry |
Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Congruence | Chomsky | Lyons I 267 Congruence/Subject/Verb/Transformational Grammar/Chomsky/Lyons: somewhere in the description of the language we have to record the legality of the subject-verb-congruence. T-Rule/Chomsky: (N. Chomsky 1957(1) Numeric transformation (mandatory): SB : X – C - Y SV : C > {s/in the context of NP sing + … 0/in all other cases}. Here we have a different structural description than in the passive transformation. X and Y are variables that denote any substring of the input chain. C: is an end symbol of the PS rule N.B.: it is true that the context restriction for C ‹ s refers to the non-terminal symbol NP sing, but we can also consider adding this "transformational" rule to the PS rule. The effect is exactly the same. Chomsky: But it is better to use the congruence rule to the T-rules, because they apply to both active and passive sentences. Active/passive/numeric/congruence/Chomsky/Lyons: e.g. The man sees the cows, The cow is seen by the men, The cow is seen by the man, The cows are seen by the men etc. >Active/passive. Core chain: (1) T + N + 0 + C + M + have + en + V + T + N + s Lyons I 268 It goes back to NP1 - Aux - V - NP2, Transformation to (1a) T + N + 0 + s + M + have + en + V + T + N + s and (2) T + N + 0 + s + C + M + have + en + be + en V + by + T + N + s. (This corresponds to NP2 - Aux + be + en - V - by + NP1). Verbal suffixation/Chomsky(1): (1b) ...M + s # have # V + en #... (2b) …M + 0 # have # be + en # V + en # … (these are just the aux parts). Notation: #: represents the word boundaries. Lexical substitution: (1c) # the # man + 0 # will + s # have # read + en # the # book + s # (2c) # the # book + s # will + 0 # have # be # + en # read +en # by # the # man + 0 # 1. N. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, Berlin, New York 1957, p. 39 and p. 113. |
Chomsky I Noam Chomsky "Linguistics and Philosophy", in: Language and Philosophy, (Ed) Sidney Hook New York 1969 pp. 51-94 In Linguistik und Philosophie, G. Grewendorf/G. Meggle Frankfurt/M. 1974/1995 Chomsky II Noam Chomsky "Some empirical assumptions in modern philosophy of language" in: Philosophy, Science, and Method, Essays in Honor of E. Nagel (Eds. S. Morgenbesser, P. Suppes and M- White) New York 1969, pp. 260-285 In Linguistik und Philosophie, G. Grewendorf/G. Meggle Frankfurt/M. 1974/1995 Chomsky IV N. Chomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge/MA 1965 German Edition: Aspekte der Syntaxtheorie Frankfurt 1978 Chomsky V N. Chomsky Language and Mind Cambridge 2006 Ly II John Lyons Semantics Cambridge, MA 1977 Lyons I John Lyons Introduction to Theoretical Lingustics, Cambridge/MA 1968 German Edition: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik München 1995 |
| Congruence | Lyons | I 242 Def Congruence/Grammar/Lyons: (grammatical correspondence) of genus, number and case between verb and noun. (in all languages). The constituents are considered to be of equal rank, in contrast to the regimen, where the verb rules the "object" and the "subject" the verb (tradition). Congruence: between words of the same category Rection: (see below) between words of different categories. I 244 Congruence/Regimen/Modern Grammar/Lyons: new: here we describe the difference in the terms endocentric/exocentric. >Terminology/Lyons. Rection/Hockett: Rection can only be found in exocentric constructions. For example, ad urbem, differs distributionally from the constituents ad, and urbem. Congruence/Hockett: Congruence can be found in endocentric constructions, in a binding beyond hierarchical structures i.e. direct constituents, I 245 between certain predictive attributes and subjects. Congruence/Lyons: Congruence thus prevails both in endo- and in exocentric constructions e.g. un livre intéressant coincides distributionally with un livre, against this: Le livre est intéressant : (here too there is congruence between livre and intéressant) is exocentric, because its distribution differs from that of le livre on the one hand and that of intéressant on the other. >Distribution/Lyons. LyonsVsHockett: thus it is not true (as many have claimed) that a subject's number is determined by the person and the verb's number. What is also incorrect is (which is even more often claimed) that the subject and not the verb determines or vice versa, that rather subject and verb form a category that belongs to the construction of which they are members. Solution/Lyons: (see below) Numerus and person are nominal categories, which can be identified flexibly or otherwise somehow in the surface structure of the verbal complex. >Surface structure, >Deep structure. Tradition: expresses it this way: "The verb corresponds to the subject in number and person". I 245 Congruence/Subject-verb-congruence/context-independent/Lyons: Example (1a) The dog bites the man (1b) The dog bites the men I 246 (1c) The dogs bite the man (1d) The dogs bite the men (2a) The chimpanzee eats the banana usw. Context-independent Grammar/Lyons: e.g (1) ∑ > NP sing + VP sing or NP plur + VP plur. (2) VP sing > V sing + NP (3) VP plur > V plur + NP (4) NP > NP sing or NP plur (5) NP sing > T + N sing (6) NP plur > T + N plur (7) N sing > N + 0 (Zero) (8) N plur > N + s (9) V sing > V + s (10) V plur > V + 0 More than one symbol is replaced at a time. Lexical Substitutions/Lyons: here we assume that their rules are outside grammar. >Lexicon, >Grammar. I 247 Congruence/context-dependent grammar/Lyons: Suppose we want to take into account the fact that the subject's number determines the verb's number. I 248 We follow approximately Chomsky's "Syntactic Structures" (N. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, Berlin, New York 1957): (here still without transformational rules): (1) ∑ > NP + VP (2) VP > Verb + NP (3) NP > NP sing or NP plur (4) Verb > V + s/in the context NP sing + ... or V + 0/in the context NP plur + ... (5) NP sing > T + N + 0 (6) NP plur > T + N + s New: Here we get along with only 6 instead of 10 rules. New: It completely disappears that the noun is the carrier word of the nominal complex. Context dependency: N.B.: according to rule (1) all sentences created by these rules are of the same type (NP + VP). Rule (3): The number becomes a category of the nominal complex, regardless of whether it occurs as subject or object. Rule (4): The number in the verb is determined by the preceding nominal expression. That depends on the context. N.B.: in this way the rule can only be formulated in a system of concatenation rules (see above I 212: linear). The nominal expression on the left determines the congruence, not the expression on the right. I 249 Subject/object: since the left-standing nominal complex is derived from the NP created by rule (1), it can be interpreted as a subject and not as an object. >Transformational grammar, >Transformation rules. |
Ly II John Lyons Semantics Cambridge, MA 1977 Lyons I John Lyons Introduction to Theoretical Lingustics, Cambridge/MA 1968 German Edition: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik München 1995 |
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| Disputed term/author/ism | Author Vs Author |
Entry |
Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hockett, Ch. F. | Lyons, J. Vs Hockett, Ch. F. | Lyons I 244 Congruence/Rection/Modern Grammar/Lyons: new: here we describe the difference in the terms endocentric/exocentric. Rection/Hockett: can only be found in exocentric constructions. E.g. ad urbem, differs distributionally from the constituents ad and urbem. Congruence/Hockett: is only to be found in endocentric constructions, namely in a bond across hierarchical structures, i.e. across immediate constituents, I 245 between certain predicative attributes and subjects. Congruence/Lyons: thus prevails both in endocentric and in exocentric constructions. E.g. "un livre intéressant" coincides distributionally with "un livre", On the other hand: Le livre est intéressant : (also here there is congruence between livre and intéressant) Le livre est intéressant : (here too there is congruence between livre and intéressant) is exocentric because its distribution differs from that of le livre on the one hand and that of intéressant on the other. LyonsVsHockett: so it is not true (as many have claimed) that the number of a subject is determined by the person and the number of the verb. And also incorrectly is (which is even more often claimed) that the subject and not the verb determines, or vice versa, that rather subject and verb form a category that belongs to the construction whose members they are. Solution/Lyons: (see below) numerus and person are nominal categories that can be marked flectively or otherwise in the surface structure of the verbal complex. Tradition: expresses it like this: "The verb matches the subject in number and person". |
Ly II John Lyons Semantics Cambridge, MA 1977 Lyons I John Lyons Introduction to Theoretical Lingustics, Cambridge/MA 1968 German Edition: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik München 1995 |
| Inflationism | Field Vs Inflationism | II 220 Gavagai/Deflationism/Field: the question is whether the facts about our use of the equal sign determine that it stands for identity instead of partial identity. The normal axioms just make sure that it is an equivalence relation and also a congruence relation with respect to the other predicates of our language. FieldVsInflationism: amplifies the uncertainty. Even if partial identity was a "partial reference" of "=" in a primitive language that contains no predicate "is a unseparated part of", it is likely that the addition of this predicate would then exclude this. Thus, the vagueness of "rabbit" would also be reduced. II 221 These observations are based on an inflationist perspective. Deflationism/Field: reduces the indeterminacy. |
Field I H. Field Realism, Mathematics and Modality Oxford New York 1989 Field II H. Field Truth and the Absence of Fact Oxford New York 2001 Field III H. Field Science without numbers Princeton New Jersey 1980 Field IV Hartry Field "Realism and Relativism", The Journal of Philosophy, 76 (1982), pp. 553-67 In Theories of Truth, Paul Horwich Aldershot 1994 |
| Reichenbach, H. | Vollmer Vs Reichenbach, H. | II 123 Dimension/Vividness/Reichenbach/ Vollmer: congruence behaviour. (+). Learnable. VollmerVsReichenbach: Topology, but not the metric of spatial view could be genetically determined. |
Vollmer I G. Vollmer Was können wir wissen? Bd. I Die Natur der Erkenntnis. Beiträge zur Evolutionären Erkenntnistheorie Stuttgart 1988 Vollmer II G. Vollmer Was können wir wissen? Bd II Die Erkenntnis der Natur. Beiträge zur modernen Naturphilosophie Stuttgart 1988 |
| Various Authors | Lyons, J. Vs Various Authors | Lyons I 169 / I 134 Grammar/Semantics/Congruence/Lyons: we called the expressions used for the characteristics e.g. "proper name" or "appellative" grammatically. I 170 We have not yet abandoned the principle that such expressions, when they stand for word classes, are terms for distributional categories. N.B.: that leads us to semantics! Classification: due to characteristics such as "animated" etc. this often contradicts the meaning of the words (see Chapter 7 below). VsContent-Related Grammar/Lyons: this is the reason why most authors have withdrawn from "content-related grammar". In a language description, the lexicon must contain both grammatical and semantic information for each word. Lyon's thesis: there is often congruence between semantic and grammatical classification. There one can infer the grammatical information partly from the word meaning. |
Lyons I John Lyons Introduction to Theoretical Lingustics, Cambridge/MA 1968 German Edition: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik München 1995 |
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